Yeast Beasts in Action Lab Investigation

In this lab investigation, my table group had the ability to test Dr. Pepper, skim milk, and Milk of Magnesia to see which would produce the most gas pressure. It was a short and normal lab, but it was fun. There was some time between each test, and in that time, I ran through the procedure and took notes. I thought that the soda would have the most gas pressure because it is a carbonated drink, and when it is mixed with yeast, it will most likely have more carbon dioxide and oxygen released than the other mixtures. I ended up being right, because the test with the most gas pressure was the soda (acid) test. It had a pressure of 102.70, and it is lower than normal because the carbon dioxide was released while it was sitting as the final preparations were done. Also, it was high because of the release of carbon dioxide and oxygen from the yeast being added, proving that my hypothesis is correct.

In this image, you can see the Milk of Magnesia (base) test in the red, and the skim milk (neutral) test in the blue. The M of M is the second greatest in pressure value, and the skim milk has the lowest pressure in the end of the test.

In the skim milk mixture (SMM), there was a much lower gas pressure than the other two tests. This is probably because the SMM was neutral, and when mixed with the hydrogen peroxide, it became slightly more acidic but still mainly neutral. Then when mixed with the yeast, there was a much lower reaction compared to the other tests.

I would say that all three tests were successful, but there could've been better results. There was a single problem that was run into. That was the fact that the soda "de-carbonated" from sitting in the graduated cylinder for a minute or two. Other than that, the test was nice and interesting.

Conservation of Mass Lab Investigation

Today, my table group experimented with some very fun and bubbly substances. First, we had an experiment with Pop Rocks and Coca Cola. Honestly, I wanted some Dr. Pepper for the extra carbon dioxide release, but whatever. Anyway, I thought that the balloon would quickly and easily fill with CO2, but sadly, there were air holes where it was on the bottle and it released the gas. Eventually, I just held the bottle and it kind of filled up, and then Connor took over. He shook it to release more gas, but it was the carbon dioxide from the drink, not the gas from the pop rocks. Also, it was a physical reaction, just releasing gas from the drink and snack, nothing chemical. The pop rocks released CO2 because they dissolved.

In this photo, you can see the balloon on the bottle of coca cola in an attempt to get it filled with gas, and sadly, it was a failure, but my table group learned.

In this image, you can (in a way) see the pop rocks floating on the drink, as well as bubbles surrounding. This shows the physical reaction that is taking place.

As you can see, the balloon filled up a large amount because of mainly the carbonated drink, not really the release of CO2 from the pop rocks.

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As for the vinegar and baking soda, well, lets just say it was a bit more wild. The reaction was very sudden, and it cause a quick amount of released gas to flow into the balloon, and it bubbled very rapidly. This was a chemical change because the acid (vinegar) mixed with the base (baking soda), bringing up the classic vinegar and baking soda reaction.

In this sideways image, you can see the vinegar at the bottom of the bottle, and it has some baking soda still there, causing a small reaction to still occur. The balloon in the image didn't fill with gas all the way, but it filled fast never the less.

In this (badly shown) Keynote diagram, you can see a large amount of "bubbles" in the "bottle", and this is during the vinegar + baking soda reaction. Sadly, I didn't actually take a picture of it.

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In the end, I accepted my hypothesis that the balloon would fill with CO2 because, it did. Also, it filled from both experiments, even though the pop rocks one didn't fill that much of the balloon. I learned that gases take up a large amount of space, and they can still pack weight and pressure just as solids can. Also, they have their own mass and volume, same as solids and liquids. A lot of problems happened in the lab. First, the balloons didn't work too well. They were hard to put on the bottle noses, and they were very thin and needed to be stretched. Another problem was the fact that the balloon didn't hold an entire packet of pop rocks, and a lot of it had to be thrown away. The last real problem that happened was the fact that there were leaks in the balloons and air could go through with ease, unless you were holding it a certain way. All in all, it was a fun experiment.

Chemical Reactions and Heat Lab Investigation

Today, my table group - Hattie experimented with alka-seltzer tablets and room temperature water, hot water, and lastly, ice-cold water. I was trying to find out how long the alka-seltzer would take to fizzle and release all of its oxygen while it dissolves, and I thought that for all three tests the time would be nearly the same. Apparently, I was way off. During the room temperature test, the water was at a nice and toasty 23.5°C, and when the seltzer was put in, the temperature actually dropped .3°C. It took about 40 seconds for the reaction to stop, and there was some moisture on the beaker, as well as a little bit of fog. 

 

In these images, it shows the temperature of the room temperature water test from a line graph to actual numbers on a chart.

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In the hot water test, which was second, the tablet actually dissolved within 25 seconds, and the water was 50°C.

In the three above images are the temperatures of the water whe it is at it's hottest point and what temperature it is when the seltzer is dropped into the water, and it actually drops about 2 degrees.

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This video right below this shows the alka-seltzer dissolve in the cold water test, and the water actually got to about 1.7°C. The tablet took an immensely long time to dissolve, and in reality, it was exactly 1 minute 55 seconds. That truly amazed me and showed that temperature really does matter in how long alka-seltzer and other similar tablets take to dissolve and oxygenate water.

In conclusion, my hypothesis was really off and made me wonder, "How in the world did I think that water temperature doesn't matter". Well, I learned something new, and it can actually help people if they want to have a dissolved tablet in less than half a minute. The video above isn't the best quality, but if you look closely, you can actually see the large and some small bubbles from the tablet.

ChemThink Chemical Reactions

1. Starting materials in a chemical reaction are called reactants.

2. The ending materials in a chemical reaction are called products.

3. The arrow indicates a chemical change.

4. All reactions have one thing in common: there is a rearrangement of bonds.

5. Chemical reactions always involve breaking bonds, forming bonds, or both.

6. In all reactions we still have all of the atoms at the end that we had at the start.

7. In every reaction there can never be any missing atoms atoms or new atoms.

8. Chemical reactions only rearrange the bonds in the atoms that are already there.

9. Let’s represent a reaction on paper. For example, hydrogen gas (H2) reacts with oxygen gas (O2) to form water (H2O):

H2 + O2 -> H2O

If we use only the atoms shown,  we’d have 2 atoms of H and 2 atoms of O as reactants. This would make 1 molecule of H2O, but we’d have 1 atom of O leftover. However, this reaction only makes H2O.

Remember: reactions are not limited to 1 molecule each of reactants. We can use as many as we need to balance the chemical equation.
A balanced chemical reaction shows:

a) What atoms are present before (in the reactants) and after (in the products)

b) How many of each reactant and product is present before and after.

10. So to make H2O from oxygen gas and hydrogen gas, the balanced equation would be:

4 H2 + 2 O2 -> H2O

Which is the same as:

# of atoms in reactants	Element	# of atoms in products
4	H	4
2	O	2

11. This idea is called the Law of Conservation of Mass.

12. There must be the same atoms and the same number of atoms before the reaction (in the reactants) and after the reaction (in the products).

13. What is the balanced equation for this reaction?

2 Cu + 2 O2  -> 2 CuO

14. In the unbalanced equation there are:

Reactants	Products
1 Cu atom	1 Cu atom
2 O atoms	2 O atoms

15. To balance this equation we have to add CuO molecules to the products, because this reaction doesn't loan O atoms.

16. When we added a molecule of CuO, now the number of O atoms is balanced but the number of Cu atoms don’t match. Now we have to add more Cu atoms to the reactants.

17. The balanced equation for this reaction is:
2 Cu + 1 O2 = 2 CuO
    That is the same thing as saying:

Reactants	Products
2 Cu atoms	2 Cu atoms
2 O atoms	2 O atoms

18. What is the balanced equation for this reaction? 1 CH4 + 2 O2 -> 2 H2O + 1 CO2

19. What is the balanced equation for this reaction? 1 N2 + 3 H2 ->2 NH3

20. What is the balanced equation for this reaction? 2 KDIO3 -> 2 KCI + 3 O2

21. What is the balanced equation for this reaction? 4 Al + 3 O2 -> 2 Al2O3

Summary

1. Chemical reactions always involve breaking bonds, making bonds, or both.

2. The Law of Conservation of Mass says that the same atoms must be present before and after the reaction.

3. To balance a chemical equation, you change the coefficients in front of each substance until there are the same number of each type of atom in both reactants and products.

Polymer Lab Group Investigation

In this experiment, my group had divided into smaller subgroups consisting of Connor and I, and Hannah and Hattie. Connor and I had worked on putting the sodium silicate and borax together (not mixing it), and H+H worked on adding glue with water and food coloring. We eventually mixed it all together and came up with a surprising creation. First of all, my hypothesis was that when everything was mixed together, it would form a super "rubber bouncy ball" type of thing. It would bounce high up, and it would be very large, colored with a reddish hue from food coloring. I thought that because the sodium silicate + ethanol lab resulted in a hard, rocky ball that needed water. The glue + borax solution resulted in a soft, moist, soft ball. Both were white in color, and they could both be used with each other. If they were combined with a little more and less of certain things, it would make a moldable but solidified ball. I was trying to find out what would happen when everything that is switch around is mixed, and what it would look and feel like. The materials that were needed varied greatly from both of the separate tests. Instead of previous amounts needed for the tests, there are different proportions used and needed. First of all, we used 60 mL of glue, and 20 mL of ethanol. Also, we used a graduated cylinder, 5 teaspoons of borax, a 500 mL beaker, a 200 mL beaker, and a 140 mL. We used a small "bottle" of food coloring, a stirring rod, 60 mL of water, and lastly, 13 mL of sodium silicate. We mixed the sodium silicate with borax and the glue with ethanol and food coloring, and eventually ended up with a yolk-like, salty textured, scrambled egg like substance. (Image 1)

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When the glue and water mixed with the food coloring, it became a gooey, sticky, moist, egg yolk-like substance as seen in the above image. Actually, when everything was mixed together, it was too moist and was a very liquid-like solid. I had thought to add 2 teaspoons of borax and my group agreed, so when I did that, it cause the salty texture and the scrambled egg look and feel to it. During the room temperature rebound test with the "blob", it fell straight to the table when it was dropped from 30 cm. During the chilled blob test, it fell from 30 cm with a rebound of only about 2 cm. Lastly, during the extremely chilled/ slightly frozen rebound test, the blob actually bounced back up to 6 cm, showing that the colder the temperature of the blob is, the more compact it becomes and the higher it can bounce.

Frozen/ Chilled Blob Test Example (the line is the path it takes):

In conclusion, my hypothesis was wrong on three accords. First of all, it is wrong because I thought the mixture would be a gigantic, semi-hardened ball rather than a large, egg-like substance that lacks bounce. Secondly, it is too hard to actually mold and combine into a single body. Lastly, my hypothesis was wrong due to the coloration. I thought that the ball would be a reddish hue, but instead, it was a yellow color.

Sodium Silicon Polymer Lab Investigation

During this polymer lab (investigation), which is the second one in a week, I had the hypothesis that the sodium silicon would mix with the ethanol and cause a "moist" or slightly wet ball that would be colored white and would easily mold because it would be moist and it is going to become a ball. Also, the color white would probably have occurred no matter what because the sodium silicon is a translucent, white-ish liquid. It was, in a way, correct as for the color and shape. When the chemical reaction occurred between the silicon and the ethanol, it cause hard but slightly soft solid to form, and it took the color of white. It was crystal-like and it easily broke apart until water was put on it because the alcohol took the water out of the silicon, as seen below.

Both images showcase the mixture of ethanol alcohol and sodium silicon, letting you see how fragile and breakable the solid is. As an added bonus, if you mix it with a bit of water, it will be less breakable at a grease-like price.

Questions:

1. What characteristics are similar between two types of polymers you have made? Differences?

2. Most commercial polymers are carbon based. What similar properties do carbon and silicon share may contribute to their abilities to polymerize.

3. Plastics are made of organic (carbon based) polymers. What similar does the silicone polymer share with plastic?

4. How do you know that a chemical reaction had taken place when the two liquids mixed?

5. How could you find out what liquid was pressed out of the mass of crumbled solid as you form the ball?

6. Compare your ball with those of the other members of the class. How many properties can you compare (e.g.,diameter of sphere versus height of bounce) ? List and Compare them.

Answers:

1. The balls both bounced at around the same height, each going a combined average of 17 cm. They both bounced pretty well and had a slightly higher or same rebound after being chilled. Both balls were white and rounded, but there were a large amount of differences. First of all, the first polymer ball that mixed glue and borax was much easier to mold, but was sticky. Also, it was consistent and rubber-like while still being soft for a long time. It retained a lot of moisture very well. As for this test, the alcohol and silicon ball was breaking commonly and was fragile, but when moistened, it molded slightly into a ball, and gave troubles nonetheless. It was like a hard rubber bouncy ball rather than the soft marshmallow like glue and borax ball.

2. Silicon mimics carbon and makes four chemical bonds, and they branch out in many directions to make lengthly chains. When sodium is silicate, the atoms are bonded to four oxygen atoms and they are not linked to chains whatsoever. The alcohol molecule is very minuscule in complexity, and when combined with the silicate molecule, they begin to link together to make polymers.

3. Plastics can actually be made from silicon and those types of atoms, so if they are combined with other things such as ethanol, plastics can be formed.

4. I knew a chemical reaction occurred because, as the alcohol and the silicon mixed, it became hardened and formed crystal like substances.

5. As the ball was squashed I could tell that the water was squeezed out because when the water was mixed in to moisten the ball, alcohol dries the water and forces it to soak out of it.

6. Comparing my table's ball to table 2, my ball was much more formed into a sphere and was easier to mold, whereas the table 2 ball was harder to mold and kept breaking apart. Also, the table 2 ball wasn't shaped into a nice sphere as my table's ball was. This caused our ball to bounce higher.

The Science of Addiction: Drugs + Brain

Neural Reward Pathways Exist in the Brain

The reward pathway is a part of the human brain that is responsible for feeling motivated, rewarded, and is all about our behavior. The main purpose of the reward pathway is to allow people to feel happy and positive about certain things such as eating and drinking tasty substances. It connects to several important parts of the brain allowing inferences to be made about the surroundings. Also, this pathway controls behavior towards certain things. When you eat or do something good, the reward pathway releases a bit of dopamine, which gives a jolt of happiness to you.


Other Brain Cells
Neurons need some help to send signals to and from your brain, and that is where glial cells come in. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath, and without them, electrical signals that go down the axon would be 30 times slower. Microglia are the immune cells in the brain. When bad neurons are found or bacteria is detected, microglia eat them before harm can be done. Lastly come the astrocytes. These may be the most important helper cells in the brain because they do three things. One, they hold neurons in place. Two, they give the neurons nutrients. Three, they digest dying or bad neurons. They also release gliotransmitters that send signals to neurons, and they can also alter the signals from other neurons.


Drugs Alter the Brain's Reward Pathway


Drugs of Abuse
All of the drugs shown (alcohol, nicotine, steroids, cocaine, inhalants, marijuana, etc.) do nearly the same thing to nerves and neurotransmitters, except cocaine. Some of the injection or inhalant drugs give an almost immediate high, bring serotonin and dopamine levels to an all time high due to forcing excess neurotransmitters to be released, or even the drugs themselves, sending signals to the next nerve and so forth to give the effect of relaxation or relief (or the drugs will speed up the nervous system, giving you too much unnatural energy). Cocaine, however, blocks the dopamine pumps/valves/transporters to force dopamine to connect to the receptors on the next neuron, causing fidgety activity and overexcited nerves.




Beyond the Reward Pathway
There are really three total dopamine pathways. First is the reward pathway, then comes the nigrostriatal pathway, and lastly, the tuberoinfundibular pathway. When drugs that effect dopamine levels are messing with neurons, it really effects each of these pathways, not just one.
The serotonin pathway is key for regulation of body functions, and when drugs disturb this, it can lead to a number of things such as depression and OCD.
Glutamate and GABA are key neurotransmitters that are the exact opposite of each other, but keep a balance in the brain. When drugs inhibit one from working or force another to be more commonly found, it can lead to horrible side effects that can even cause brain damage.


Drug Delivery Methods
New studies have shown that addictive drugs are the ones that actually cause a reaction the fastest, or at least as fast as needed. This is because it allows for a faster "high" which gives the drug abuser the feeling that they want at an unnatural level. The fastest way to get a drug to have its effect is to smoke or inhale it. When a drug like nicotine is smoked, it has its effective addictive chemicals absorbed by the lungs, bringing them to the brain via the blood stream. Next comes injection. This is the second fastest way because the drug will pass through the blood and eventually make it to the brain as wanted. Then comes snorting, which takes longer, and lastly, drinking or swallowing the drugs. People don't want to wait to get "high", but using a fast delivery method is harmful to your brain, very harmful. The brain, in fact, will actually suffer damage from the severe change it undergoes with the drugs. Thankfully, new technology allows a slow and gradual release of the drug into your system to get off of your addiction, and you can't get addicted to the slower release, allowing effects to last longer but with less side effects.


How Drugs Can Kill
Heroin and alcohol can easily kill you if enough of the drug is taken. Heroin only needs a little bit to slow breathing, and if you take just a little more, breathing can and most likely will entirely stop, causing death to occur. Alcohol, on the other hand, needs to be used more than enough to entirely stop breathing, but it still wouldn't take too long. A minor overdose would easily get you killed. Overdosing on nicotine would (instead of only affecting the brain) actually affect muscles and force them to stop moving and it may prevent breathing as well, causing a death quickly. It would bring seizures and violent convulsions into play, bringing immense pain before a death. Cocaine kills with heart attacks, brain damage, and even overheating. If you even take a little bit of it, you are 24 times more likely to die of a heart attack than a drug-free person. Ecstasy can also bring overheating, and it is the most common form of death.


Brain Imaging
PET scans are common forms of measuring the brain's activity levels. A small amount of non-deadly radioactive material binds to glucose, which is then inserted into the blood stream and sent to the brain. Then the machine scans to see what parts of the brain have more or less glucose. MRI scans are another common form of brain imaging that work without the need for glucose. Instead, the machine measures the amount of blood flow to the brain because, the more active the brain section, the more blood and oxygen it would need.